A Smart Growth Bibliography:

Travel Demand/Transit Impacts

American Public Transit Association. Access to Opportunity: Linking Inner-City Workers to Suburban Jobs, May 1994.
Summary: Research report on reverse commuting (i.e., from city to suburb). This report focuses on the provision of transportation service by government agencies, transit systems and private providers rather than the social service aspects of reverse commuting. Based upon a reverse commuting workshop held by the American Public Transit Association (APTA). Report - Study (62 pages)

American Public Transit Association. Access to Opportunity: A Study of Reverse Commute Programs. September, 1993.
Summary: Abstracts of about two dozen reports, articles and other documents. Provides a basic list of resources regarding the reverse commute phenomenon, its causes and possible solutions. Literature review (55 pages).

Brand, Daniel. Research Needs for Analyzing the Impacts of Transportation on Land Use, Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Washington DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1991,
Summary: The paper offers a new paradigm for examining the interaction between transportation and land use that incorporates individual behavior. This paradigm inserts available resources and individual needs into the equation of individual land use and transportation consumption. Because of this "third variable", Brand argues that simply offering alternative development schemes as an attempt to reduce travel may be ineffective and that shifting some of the costs incurred by travel choices to individuals may be necessary. The paper
concludes by offering seven options for future urban mobility that reduce congestion and environmental impacts, focusing on information access and technology improvements.

Cervero, Robert. Land Uses and Travel at Suburban Activity Centers, Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 4, October 1991 (479-491).
Summary: Examination of the influence of project size, density, land-use mixing, and parking facilities on three measures of transportation demand: trip generation rates, work trip mode splits, and automobile occupancy levels. Paper - Model (13 pages).

Cervero, Robert, Transportation Research Board. An Evaluation of the Relationships Between Transit and Urban Form. June 1995.
Summary: Review of the existing literature on transit and urban form relations. Also identifies gaps in current knowledge and develops a research plan for the remainder of the research project. Literature review (55 pages).

Cervero, Robert and Roger Gorham. Commuting in Transit Versus Automobile Neighborhoods, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 61, No. 2, Spring 1995.
Summary: The article compares commuting characteristics of transit-oriented and auto-oriented suburban neighborhoods in the San Francisco Bay Area and in Southern California. The authors found that, by and large, transit neighborhoods showed lower drive-alone modal shares and trip generation rates, and higher walking and bicycling modal shares and generation rates than did their automobile counterparts. Article (16 pages).

Chicagoland Transportation and Air Quality Commission. The $650 Billion Decision, The Citizen Transportation Plan for Northeastern Illinois, Center for Neighborhood Technology, October 1995.
Summary: Presents a series of goals that are required to "recreate" transportation policy in the Chicago region. Each goal is accompanied by policy recommendations, providing the framework within which specific transportation projects and investments can be made. The recommendations are based on the premise that existing investment patterns are creating a drag on the regional economy by encouraging reliance on automobiles and encouraging urban sprawl. Transportation plan (35 pages).

Crane, Randall. Cars and Drivers in the New Suburbs - Linking Access to Travel in Neotraditional Planning, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 62, No. 1, Winter 1996.
Summary: The paper examines the conventional wisdom that a return to a grid circulation pattern has unambiguous transportation benefits. It demonstrates that such benefits are not self-evident but depend on the particular mix of features in each development. Article (15 pages).

Czerniak, R.J. and P. DeCorla-Souza. Toledo, Ohio: Alternative Transportation and Land Use Structures, ITE 1992 Compendium of Technical Papers, 1992, pp. 330-335.
Summary:

Deakin, Elizabeth A. Jobs, Housing and Transportation: Theory and Evidence on Interactions Between Land Use and Transportation, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1991.
Summary: Deakin asserts that transportation planners are "in the land use business" and have a potentially major impact on the quality of metropolitan structure and life. She explains the inverse relationship between transportation costs and land value and the centralization of economic activity/dispersion of housing that results. Deakin concludes from empirical analysis that transportation development decisions have a major (but not the only) role to play in spurring economic growth, reducing pollution, and improving social equity.

Dyett, Michael V. Site Design and its Relation to Urban Form, Transportation, Urban Form, and the Environment, Washington DC: Federal Highway Administration, 1991.
Summary: This paper stresses the necessity of incorporating sitespecific transportation plans into community development. Dyett offers that planners need to make mixeduse communities work at various scales, with appropriate design objectives, to strike the right balance with the existing environment, both natural and built.

Edwards, John D., Jr. Traffic and Land Use Planning, and the Decline of the Central Business Districts, ITE Journal, December 1991.
Summary: The article sites several cases in which the construction of a bypass facility, with little or no control of land development adjacent to and along the artery, has resulted in the deterioration of downtown areas. Article - Discussion piece (5 pages).

Ewing, Reid. Best Development Practices - Doing the Right Thing and Making Money at the Same Time, Chicago, IL: American Planning Association (in cooperation with the Urban Land Institute), 1996.
Summary:

Ewing, Reid. Beyond Density, Mode Choice, and Single-Purpose Trips. Transportation Quarterly, 49, 4: 15-24, 1995.
Summary: The study investigates the independent effects of land use on household travel behavior, controlling for sociodemographic differences among households. The study concludes that development patterns have a significant effect on household travel behavior, with accessibility to regional activities being a more important determinant than density or land use mix. Paper (10 pages).

Ewing, Reid. TDM, Growth Management and the other Four Out of Five Trips, Transportation Quarterly. July 1993.
Summary: The article reviews the existing literature to determine whether TDM actions are effective. Only before/after studies were reviewed. The article includes some discussion of land use and its impact on vehicular travel. Article - Analysis (24 pages).

Ewing, Reid, Padma Haliyur, and G. William Page. Getting Around a Traditional City, a Suburban Planned Unit Development, and Everything in Between, Transportation Research Record, 1466, Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, 1994, pp. 5362.
Summary: This study presents findings from the statistical analysis of data from six communities to see if there are relationships between location and land use, and household travel patterns. Conclusion: Sprawl areas generate nearly twothirds more vehicle hours of travel per person than traditional city designs.

Gakenheimer, Ralph. Land Use/ Transportation Planning: New Possibilities for Developing and Developed Countries, Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 47 No. 2, April 1993 (311-322).
Summary: Reviews the history of land use/transportation planning in the United States in order to provide lessons for planning in developing nations. Journal article (12 pages).

Handy, Susan. A Cycle of Dependence: Automobiles, Accessibility, and the Evolution of the Transportation and Retail Hierarchies, Berkeley Planning Journal, Vol.8, 1993, pp.2143.
Summary: The study discusses the cyclical relationship between choice of transportation mode and retail accessibility; namely that automobiles were at some point chosen as the primary means of transit, after which retail and commercial facilities were designed with auto access in mind, which reinforces the initial transit choice. A further implications of this cycle is the decline of the central business district. This cycle of dependency also threatens to stamp out other means of transit, excluding those without access to autos, by the sheer amount of infrastructural resources devoted to it. Handy warns of the unsustainability of current accessibility patterns, and concludes with a mention of neotraditional development and higher density settlement patterns as a way to combat current trends.

Hanson, Susan. Dimensions of the Urban Transportation Problem, in The Geography of Urban Transportation, Susan Hanson, ed., New York: The Guilford Press, 1986.
Summary: This introductory chapter explains how access and mobility lead to a symbiotic relationship between land use and transportation, with increased access necessary because land uses are spatially disjoint. The author finds that while motor vehicle ownership and trip frequency and length have increased, there has been a rise in people with special transportation needs that have frequently not been met. Hanson also explains how the decentralization of workplaces has led to residential segregation, pollution, overburdened transportation systems, and problems of accessability and opportunities to jobs for the urban poor.

Holtzclaw, John. Using Residential Patterns and Transit to Decrease Auto Dependence and Costs, San Francisco, CA: Natural Resources Defense Council, June 1994.
Summary: Holtzclaw analyzes data from communities in Northern California to derive equations governing the relationship between density, transit accessibility, and household travel. He concludes that there is a strong relationship between these factors, and argues that his findings support the case for locationefficient mortgages. LEMs enable homebuyers to amortize larger mortgages if they buy in locationefficient areas.

Kitamura, R., P.L. Mokhtarian and L. Laidet. A Micro-Analysis of Land Use and Travel in Five Neighborhoods in the San Francisco Bay Area. Paper presented at the 74th Annual Meeting, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1995.
Summary:

Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments. Transportation Demand Impacts of Alternative Land Use Scenarios, Final Report. Washington, D.C., 1991.
Summary: The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) contracted with the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments to develop and analyze regional growth alternatives in the Washington, DC Metropolitan Area. The purpose of this report is to compare the differences in travel by mode and transportation system performance between the land use alternatives selected.

Middlesex Somerset Mercer Regional Council. The Impact of Various Land Use Strategies on Suburban Mobility, Final Report. Princeton, N.J., 1991.
Summary: The study tested the traffic impact of locating the region's new employees in Trenton and New Brunswick, as well as in tightly clustered suburban employment centers. Under scenarios proposed in the study, new residents would work and shop closer to their homes, their living environment would be more conducive to walking and reduced auto use, opportunities for transit and ridesharing would be available to commuters, and a significant number of people would take advantage of these choices because of incentives provided by regional demand management policies. The study demonstrates that this approach to land use would create a significant reduction in the growth in traffic. Report (150 pages).

Moffet, John. The Price of Mobility, Natural Resources Defense Council, San Francisco, CA, 1992.
Summary: The article describes effects of urban sprawl and the role of the states in mandating and coordinating land use planning activities. The importance of three factors - density, designation, and design - in achieving a community that is walkable, bikable and servicable by transit is explained. The article further gives examples of programs and policies implemented by states to solve transportation problems caused by sprawl.

Moore, Terry and Paul Thorsnes. The Transportation/Land Use Connection: A Framework for Political Policy, 1994.
Summary: Presents a framework for evaluating integrated land use/transportation policies, going beyond traditional engineering solutions. The discussion focuses on regional policies. Report (129 pages).

Pflum, John E. Traffic Impact Studies, Land Development, Fall 1993, pp. 3-4.
Summary:

Pisarski, A.E. Travel Behavior Issues in the 90s, Washington, D.C.: Office of Highway Information Management, Federal Highway Administration, 1992.
Summary: The study presents a preliminary examination of the most recent personal travel data relating to key questions of interest to transportation planners and policymakers. Drawing on data from the 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) and the 1985 and 1989 American Housing Surveys (AHS), it provides a selective review of changes in the amount, purpose, and mode of personal travel, as related to various demographic and geographic factors. Study (74 pages).

Potter, S. The Transport Versus Land Use Dilemma, Transportation Research Record 964. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (1985) pp. 10-17.
Summary: The paper examines the degree of land use conflict between alternative modes of travel in a case study of the British new towns which have been built to a wide variety of land use and transport designs. The paper concludes that equitable and energy-efficient land use policies are entirely feasible, but that the political status of planning is too weak for them to be implemented. Paper (8 pages).

Prastacos, P. Urban Development Models for the San Francisco Region: From PLUM to POLIS, Transportation Research Record 1046. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (1985) pp.37-44.
Summary: The authors describe the short comings of past urban development models and present the Projective Optimization Land Use Information System (POLIS) as a better alternative. POLIS is a land use-transportation model that allocates employment and housing at the subregional level and estimates commuting flows and shopping trips for the San Francisco Bay Area. Article (8 pages).

RPA, Regional Plan Association. The Region's Agenda: Resolving the Suburban Transportation Dilemma. New York, New York: RPA 1993.
Summary: Report reviews the problem of suburban traffic congestion and presents a detailed list of solutions under the headings: highway and transit maintenance, increased roadway capacity, modified pricing structures, improved alternatives to the automobile, and better land use management.

RPA, Regional Plan Association. Transportation Demand Management in the New York Region. New York, New York: RPA 1992.
Summary: Defines TDM and its effectiveness and discusses appropriate applications in the New York Region. Possibilities for congestion relief using TDM strategies are outlined.

San Diego Association of Governments. Jobs/Housing Balance and Transportation Corridor Densities, report given to the Regional Growth Management Technical Committee, San Diego, CA, 1991.
Summary: The report measures the impacts of balancing jobs and housing location on the region's transportation system, air quality and energy consumption. Comparisons are made between impacts based on current trends (the Series 7 Regional Growth Forecast) and impacts under scenarios depicting a numerical balance between jobs and housing.

Shortreed, J.H., P. May, and E. Dust. The Effect of Future Trends on Trip Patterns, Urban Commercial Structure, and Land Use, Transportation Research Record 1046. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (1985) pp.50-58.
Summary: The paper discusses the possible risks the information society, or the "third wave," places on existing transportation facility plans because projected transport demands may not materialize. An approach to evaluating the risks to transport investment in southern Ontario is described. Paper (9 pages).

U.S. Department of Transportation. The Effects of Land Use and Travel Demand Management Strategies on Commuting Behavior, US DOT, November 1994.
Summary: Empirical work to evaluate the interactive effects of land use and travel demand management (TDM) strategies on commuting behavior. Empirical report (approx. 55 pages).

Webster, F.V. and P.H. Bly. Changing Pattern of Urban Travel and Implications for Land Use and Transport Strategy, Transportation Research Record 1,125. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (1987) pp. 21-28.
Summary: The paper examines the findings of a study on the changing patterns of urban travel, carried out for the European Conference of Ministers of Transport. That study concluded that public transport would ultimately decline even in those countries where its use was currently rising. In contrast, the factors that favor car use were likely to continue well into the future. This paper evaluates the implications of those findings and some of the options available to policy makers. Paper (8 pages).

Wheaton, William C. Land Use and Transportation Infrastructure in Cities with Congestion. Draft, September 1995.
Summary: Draft of three models without explanations. Model 1: Given market land use patterns, what is optimal infrastructure? Model 2: Given historic infrastructure, what is the optimal land use? Model 3: What is the First Best (combined) optimal land use and transportation infrastructure? Mathematic models (7 pages).

Wong, P. and H.L. Gordon. The Costs of Urban Sprawl: Some New Evidence, Environment and Planning A, 1985, volume 17, pages 661-666.
Summary: A large national sample from the U.S. 1977 Nationwide Personal Transportation Study is analyzed in order to test the transport economies that may result from the dispersion of work trip ends. The authors claim that the results suggest that decentralized settlement is not necessarily uneconomical in terms of privately incurred passenger travel costs. Paper (6 pages).


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